Play and Learning

by

Overview of Research Findings

The literature on play is robust. Play is widely recognized as a universal human activity, and scholars have gone to tremendous lengths to make sense of that behavior.

Yet, the scholarly literature on play and education is frustrating. On the one hand, play has a long history of being linked to education. For at least the last century, its value for pedagogy has been recognized. Many educationalists have acknowledged that play has something to do with learning.

On the other hand, the scientific literature on play and learning is limited. It suffers from preoccupations and lacunae. For example, it skews heavily towards younger children and early education. From a scientific standpoint, there is very little known overall about the use of play in learning experiences for older adolescents, young adults, or adults. Further, the literature often adopts the teacher’s rather than the student’s perspective on learning. This makes it of limited use for students looking for ways to help them learn more effectively.

An illustrative example is this blog post on play in higher education, which was posted on a respected research center’s blog. The analysis relies on a definition of play that is general to the point of being useless (what is essentially just attentive teaching is defined as “play”). The teaching methods it describes are similarly general and not specific to the material being taught. It’s based on a work of (admittedly quite good) journalism and not science. It adopts the teacher’s perspective and does not provide insights that would be useful for a student. 

In a sense, the scientific literature is of less use than the popular literature on the topic. Many blogs, social media accounts, and study guides provide productivity and study tips that indirectly touch on play. This is valuable, though few of the recommendations appear to have been tested scientifically. We are largely limited to anecdotal data in that area.

It is challenging to study play because it is inherently subjective, ultimately a matter of attitude and experience, and very hard to consistently replicate in students. What constitutes play in teaching is ultimately more a matter of how something is done than what is done. It depends on the comportment and attitude of the teacher and student more than the execution of specific pedagogical strategies. This makes it very difficult to study.

Beyond that, time and again the scholarly literature points out that play is often in tension with schooling. This mismatch may subtly direct scientific interest away from play. This is unfortunate given the robust scholarly and anecdotal literature suggesting its value.

This report is made up of five sections:

  1. What is Play?
  2. What is the Relationship Between Play and Education?
  3. Does Play Bolster Learning?
  4. What are some Examples of Playful Teaching?
  5. What is the Relationship between Play and Schooling?

What is Play?

  • Play appears to be a universal human behavior (though its exact form at any given time is shaped by cultural factors) (Solis et al., 2019; Whitebread & Basilo, 2010)
  • There are many definitions of play (Barnett & Owens, 2015; Dewey, 1944; Eberle, 2014; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009; Šimůnková, 2018; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Caillois, 1958/2001)
  • Despite the diversity of definitions, there are clear commonalities across them, which see play as an activity that is:
    • pleasurable
    • spontaneous
    • non-goal directed
  • Researchers have identified predictable phenomenological dimensions of the experience of play (Brown, 2008; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Eberle, 2014; Gray, 2015). Some common and important ones include:
    • anticipation
    • flow
    • surprise
    • delight
  • Additional traits commonly associated with play include the following feelings, attitudes, or characteristics (Solis et al., 2019):
    • ownership
    • curiosity
    • choice
    • wonder
    • experimentation
    • comfort with failure
  • A few key highlights from the development of play as a concept:
    • the role of imaginative play in assigning meaning (Vygotsky, 1933, 1980)
    • the role of play in human developmental stages (increasing cognitive, physical, and social competence as humans age) (Erikson, 1972; Piaget, 1951/1989)
    • play as a way to process negative emotional experiences (Erikson, 1994; Freud, 1952)
    • play as a key part of adult life and the development of human civilization (e.g., law, art, poetry, and philosophy) (Huizinga, 1949)

What is the Relationship between Play and Education?

  • Play has a long history in educational science. Its perceived value has taken a number of forms
  • A few key highlights from the development of thinking on the use of play in education (in rough historical order):
    • Play as release of excess energy that might otherwise be distracting for a student
    • Physical play as leading to greater muscle development, coordination, etc.
    • Play as encouraging unique psychological experiences
    • Play (e.g., role play) as contributing to socio-emotional growth
    • Play as making learning pleasurable
    • Play as producing better learning outcomes according to standardized metrics

Does Play Bolster Learning?

  • Yes. To my knowledge, there are no studies suggesting otherwise. Some examples:
  • play promotes physical, cognitive, and social outcomes that are essential for school readiness and academic success (Singer et al., 2006)
    • playful learning atmospheres have been found to be engaged, relaxed, and challenging (LEGO Learning Institute, 2013)
    • play has a close relationship with the flow state, which has been found to predict learning and enjoyment (Barzilai & Blau, 2014)
    • play has been found to encourage creativity (Bateson & Martin, 2013)
    • play deepens content knowledge (particularly amongst younger children) in math, literacy, science, and IT/CS (Cheng, 2011; Han et al., 2010; Honeyford & Boyd, 2015; Kangas, 2010; Kennewell & Morgan, 2006)
    • play is closely related to skills of self-regulation and the development of a sense of agency (Elias & Berk, 2002; Berk et al., 2006)
  • Results for young children:
    • long-term academic gains (Marcon, 2002; Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006; Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013)
    • physical development (strength, coordination, muscle control, etc.) (Frost, 2015; Manning, 1998)
    • social development (e.g., sharing ideas, expressing themselves, negotiating, and reaching compromises) (Mraz et al., 2016; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000)
  • Results for adolescents:
    • long term growth that appears to lead to adults being more adaptable to change in socio-emotional as well as cognitive tasks (Siviy, 2016)
    • Play appears to be particularly useful for the social development of children with ASD (Fujiware & Sonoyama, 2019)
  • Results for older children and adults:
    • improved academic performance (Proyer & Ruch, 2011)
    • enhanced quality of life (Ruch et al., 2010)
    • improved stress management (Qian & Yarnal, 2011)
    • positive attitudes toward the workplace, increased job satisfaction, and better teamwork outcomes (Yu et al., 2007)
    • increases in physical activity, emotional regulation, and imagination (Gordon, 2014)
    • enhanced creativity, humor, motivation, and positive emotions (Bateson & Martin, 2013)
    • a welcoming classroom, positive feelings and motivation and an open attitude towards learning (Forbes, 2021)

What are some Examples of Playful Teaching?

  • Gamification
  • Role-playing
  • Crafts (e.g., painting a model of the earth on an orange)
  • Debate
  • Co-teaching/tutoring
  • Hands-on scientific experimentation
  • Using avatars to facilitate classroom discussion
  • Board games
  • An attitude of experimentation and comfort with failure

What is the Relationship Between Play and Schooling?

  • “Schooling” can here be defined as educational institutions in the form they have taken over roughly the last 150 years (Graham, 2005)
  • In many settings, there is a mistrust of play in educational contexts (Wood, 2013). It is not commonly incorporated into teacher ed programs (LEGO Learning Institute, 2013)
  • To the extent that it is prioritized, it is often in early childhood education, and even that is increasingly uncommon (Miller & Almon, 2009; Bassok et al., 2016)
  • Clearly, play is often seen as being in tension with contemporary schooling (Kuschner, 2012; Solis et al., 2019). The reasons are structural. In play, people lose their sense of time, but schools often require adherence to strict time schedules. Similarly, play is unpredictable. It is hard to evaluate and thus not amenable to most conventional metrics (Ball, 2012; Shore, 2010). It’s time-consuming and consequently inefficient (Ball, 2013; Moss, 2009; Wohlwend & Peppler, 2015; Sahlberg, 2011).
  • Furthermore, playful education is demanding for the educator: it can be resource-intensive and requires high levels of skill, organization, and commitment (Bennett et al., 1997)
  • Nevertheless, some educators have been able to utilize play to meet state-mandated curricular goals (viz., through strategies such as intentionally crafting activities, identifying developmental needs, and assessing growth (Mcdonald, 2018)

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