Part 1: International Programs
Overview
The three most prominent international educational curricula are the AP, IB, and A Level. The first originates from the US, the second from Europe (founded in Switzerland by an international team), and the third is from the UK.
Of the three, the IB is the only truly “international” curriculum. AP exams are primarily taken in the US or at international schools that employ a US curriculum. Similarly, A Levels are primarily taken in the UK, international schools based on a UK curriculum, and former UK colonies.
The curricula are quite different. The AP system was designed by a private group (the College Board, which also administers the SAT) as a way for American students to take high school classes that would earn college credit.
AP is not so much a “curriculum” per se as it is a program for taking advanced classes: students take classes a la carte in a few dozen subject areas (e.g., psychology, English literature, physics, etc.). They generally enroll in a smattering of advanced classes in their last 1-2 years of high school. The class then prepares them to take an exam. Good performance on the exam (i.e., a score of roughly 4/6) allows them to earn college credit at most universities.
The A Level system was designed by the British government and corresponds to the country’s national curriculum. Students choose three areas to concentrate on and dedicate the final two years of their high school experience to taking classes that will prepare them for the A Level exams, which they will take in their three areas of concentration. Prior to the A levels, all UK students take the GCSE exams (the international equivalent is the IGCSE). Students interested in going to college will then prepare for the A Levels.
Finally, the IB curriculum is qualitatively different from the other two. To earn an IB diploma, students take six academic classes. This includes studying a foreign language, literature in one’s native language, natural sciences, humanities, social sciences, and mathematics. Students must also take three additional classes: a required epistemology class, a research seminar in which they produce an independent piece of writing, and a community service/arts requirement. Their eligibility for the IB diploma is based on their class performance, exam performance, and a portfolio of their work.
All three systems appear to be well respected by universities and admissions officers. Some scholars have suggested that the IB may be seen as the most demanding of the three, which would make sense given its obvious rigor and comprehensive scope.
Nevertheless, the literature suggests that all three are correlated with success in college. Importantly, there is little research to suggest whether it is the curricula that are doing this, or if the curricula are attracting students who would likely be successful under any conditions. This is a common conundrum in education research.
Notably, there is not a lot of scholarly literature on the lived experience of being a student enrolled in the different programs. This is likely because these students generally do well in their high school classes, do well in college, and typically come from comparatively privileged backgrounds. Educational research tends to focus on things that aren’t working well, and that is clearly not the case here.
Still, students in all three tracks report stress and anxiety; studies suggest they are often sleep-deprived. However, they are generally less inclined to self-destructive habits (e.g., drugs and alcohol, sex, etc.) than their non-AP/IB/A level peers.
This report will provide a breakdown of each of the three major systems. A full bibliography then follows. Part Two of the report, which is on the characteristics of three national systems, begins after the bibliography.
IB
- Founded in 1960 (Switzerland)
- 1.95M students in 7,500 programs across 5,400 schools in 159 countries (Feb 2022)
- Overseen by an international nonprofit organization
- Overtly international emphasis in the material taught as well as emphasis on the liberal arts as a way to foster habits of mind
- Two-year program
- Classes offered at two levels of difficulty: Higher Level (HL) and Standard Level (SL); students are required to complete 3 HL classes
- Curriculum divided across 6 subject areas:
- Student’s native language and literature
- Modern foreign language
- Individuals and society (social sciences)
- Experimental sciences
- Mathematics
- Arts and electives
- Additionally, all students take the following 3 classes:
- Theory of Knowledge (epistemology)
- Extended Essay (an independent research project of up to 4k words)
- Creativity, Activity, and Service (CAS) Project (non-academic project: volunteer work, tutoring, arts, etc.)
- Some classes (e.g., music) will have a performance component
- Internal/external assessment
- Internal: classes, papers, reports, presentations, etc.
- External: one cumulative exam at end of second year of study (scored out of 7)
AP
- Produced in 1955 and managed by a for-profit organization (The College Board)
- Heavy US emphasis
- Around 70% of American public high schools offer at least one AP course
- Roughly 2.5M students appear to take at least one AP course
- Requirements: number of classes vary
- Externally assessed at end of academic year by one standardized exam that is scored on a scale of 1-5 (can usually get college credit for scores above 3-4)
- Can take as many or as a few as you want
- No set program of courses
- Classes offered at one level (“AP”)
- Oriented towards digesting info and repeating it back
- AP classes have been linked to white, middle/upper-middle-class identities, which has been alienating for some students; there has been a push to correct this over the last few years
- Traditionally, AP courses have been reserved for students who’ve somehow been judged “gifted” (grades, IQ test, etc.). The direction seems to be away from that now
- As with everything in the US system, experiences and quality of teaching vary considerably
- AP course content in general has been found to be roughly equivalent to college course material
A Levels
- Produced by the UK government
- Roughly 700k students per year earn an A Level diploma
- A Levels are offered in 40 areas of study, including
- History
- Classical languages
- Biology
- Geography
- Chemistry
- A Levels are broken down into two parts
- Advanced Subsidiary (AS) (Year 12)
- A2 Level (Year 13)
- Generally, students take 4-5 AS Level subjects and then 3-4 of those subjects at A2 level
- The A levels you take will determine what college majors will be available to you within the UK system
- Thus, students in this system start to specialize early: they consider their college major when choosing their A level fields and consider A level fields when selecting their GCSE/IGCSE exams
- A levels are 100% externally assessed by exam; there are two exam dates per year (exams can be taken more than once)
- Students take exams in multiple content areas, each scored from 1-9; the weighted average is the student’s final grade
References (Part One)
IB
Brunold-Conesa, C. (2010). International education: The International Baccalaureate, Montessori and global citizenship. Journal of Research in International Education, 9(3), 259-272.
Coates, H., Rosicka, C., & MacMahon-Ball, M. (2007). Perceptions of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme among Australian and New Zealand Universities. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research Press.
Bagnall, N. 1994. The International Baccalaureate in Australia and Canada: 1980-1993. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Melbourne.
Bunnell, T. (2008). The global growth of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme over the first 40 years: A Critical Assessment. Comparative Education 44(4), pp. 409 424
Cooke, B. (2009). The International Baccalaureate and the globalization of geography. Teaching Geography 34(1), pp. 7-10
Daniel, N., and J. Cox. 1992. International education for high ability students: an avenue to excellence. NASSP Bulletin April 1992.
Doherty, C. and Mu L. and Shield P. (2009). Planning mobile futures: the border artistry of International Baccalaureate Diploma Choosers. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 30(6), pp. 757-771
Gehring, J. (2001). The International Baccalaureate: “Cadillac” of college prep programs. Education Week, 20(32), 19.
Hallinger, P., Lee, M., & Walker, A. (2011). Program transition challenges in International Baccalaureate schools. Journal of Research in International Education, 10(2), 123-136.
Hallinger, P., Walker, A. & Lee, M, (2010). A Study of successful practices in the IB programme continuum. Hong Kong: The Joseph Lau Luen Hung Charitable Trust Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.
Hayden, M. C., & Wong, C. S. (1997). The International Baccalaureate: International education and cultural preservation. Educational Studies, 23(3), 349-36 I.
Hill, I. 1990. IB developments in Australia. International Schools Journal 19: 26-34.
Hill, I. (2006). Do International Baccalaureate programs internationalise or globalise? International Education Journal, 7(1), 98-108.
Hinrichs, J. 2003. A comparison of levels of international understanding among students of the IBD and AP programs in the USA. Journal of Research in International Education 2 (3), pp. 331-348.
Khost, P., Larson K., Kurtyka F., and Miller-Cochran, S. (2017). Reframing Readiness: College Readiness and the International Baccalaureate Program. The English Journal, 106(5), pp. 86-89
Lee, M., Hallinger, P., & Walker, A. (2012). Leadership challenges in international schools in the Asia Pacific region: Evidence from program implementation of the International Baccalaureate. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 15(3), 289-300
Maclehose, A., and I. Hill. 1989. The International Baccalaureate for Australia? Education Monitor 1(2), pp. 17 20.
McDonald, P. (2012). Impressions of International Baccalaureate Mathematics. Mathematics in School. 41(1), pp. 7-13.
Parreira do Amaral, M., Fossum, P., Hornberg, S. (2021). Agents of privatization: International Baccalaureate schools as transnational educational spaces in national education systems. Verlag Barbara Budrich: Opladen, Germany
Peterson, A. 1972. The International Baccalaureate: an experiment in international education. London: George G. Harper.
Peterson, A. 1972. Is the IB an elitist project? IBO Annual Bulletin 8.
Peterson, A. 1987. Schools across frontiers – The story of the International Baccalaureate and the United World Colleges. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court.
Ryan, A., Heineke, A. and Steindam, C. (2014). Preparing globally minded teachers through the incorporation of the International Baccalaureate. Journal of Education 194(3), pp. 39-51
Rufino, V. (2007). Understanding the Music Curriculum in the International Baccalaureate Program. Music Educators Journal. 93 (4), pp. 48-53.
Thomas, P. 1988. Students across frontiers. Journal of College Admissions 121, 7-14.
Van Oord, L. (2007). To westernize the nations? An analysis of the International Baccalaureate’s philosophy of education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(3), 375 390.
Wright, E. and Moonsong, L. (2014). Developing skills for youth in the 21st century: the role of elite International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme schools in China. International Review of Education. 60(2), pp. 199 216
AP
Ackermann, M., & Morrow, J. (2007). A principal components analysis and validation of the Coping with the College Environment Scale (CWCES). Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 9, 133-148.
Bowie, Liz. “Maryland Schools Have Been Leader in Advanced Placement, but Results Are Mixed.” Baltimore Sun. Web.
Byrd, S. (2007). Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate: Do They Deserve Gold Star Status? Thomas B. Fordham Institute
Clark, Chris, Benjamin Scafidi, and John R. Swinton. 2012. Does AP Economics Improve Student Achievement? American Economist, LVII(I): 1-20.
Conger, Dylan, Mark C. Long, and Patrice Iatarola. 2009. Explaining Race, Poverty, and Gender Disparities in Advanced Course-Taking. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 28(4): 555-576.
Dougherty, C., Mellor, L., and Jian, S. (2006). The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation. 2005 AP Study Series, Report 1. National Center for Educational Accountability.
Ferrarini, Tawni H., James D. Gwartney, and John S. Morton. 2011. Advanced Placement Economics: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Econ Journal Watch, 8(1), 57-75.
Foust, R. C., Hertberg-Davis, H., & Callahan, C. M. (2008). “Having it all” at sleep’s expense: The forced choice of participants in Advanced Placement courses and International Baccalaureate programs. Roeper Review, 30, 121-129.
Garrett, T., Antrop-Gonzales, R., & Velez, W. (2010). Examining the success factors of high achieving Puerto Rican male high school students. Roeper Review, 32, 106-115.
Godley, A., Monroe T., and Castma, J. (2015). Increasing access to and success in Advanced Placement English in Pittsburgh Public Schools. The English Journal. 105(1), pp. 28-34
Handwerk, Philip, Namrata Tognatta, Richard J. Coley, and Drew H. Gitomer. 2008. Access to Success: Patterns of Advanced Placement Participation in US High Schools. Policy Information Center, Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service
Hertberg-Davis, Holly, and Carolyn M. Callahan. A Narrow Escape: Gifted Students’ Perceptions of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs. Gifted Child Quarterly 52.3 (2008), 199-216
Hertberg-Davis, H., & Callahan, C. M. (2008). A narrow escape: Gifted students’ perceptions of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Programs. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52, 199-216.
Ingram, M., Wolfe, R. B., & Lieberman, J.M. (2007). The role of parents in high-achieving schools serving low income, at-risk populations. Education on Urban Society, 39, 479-497.
Judson, Eugene. (2017). How science and math teachers address different course level: Advanced Placement (AP), Honors, and Regular. The High School Journal 100(4), pp. 226-249
Klopfenstein, Kristin. 2004. The Advanced Placement Expansion of the 1990s: How Did Traditionally Underserved Students Fare? Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12(68), 1 -12.
Klopfenstein, K., & Thomas, M. K. (2009). The link between advanced placement experience and early college success. Southern Economic Journal, 873–891.
Milburn, K. M. (2012). Experiences of high-achieving high school students who have taken multiple concurrent Advanced Placement courses. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 73, 522.
Moore, George W., and John R. Slate. 2008. Who’s Taking the Advanced Placement Courses and How are They Doing: A Statewide Two-Year Study. The High School Journal, 92(1), 56 -67.
Paek, P. L., Ponte, E., Sigel, I., Braun, H., & Powers, D. (2005). A portrait of advanced placement teachers’ practices. ETS Research Report Series, No. 2005 7.
Reis, S. A., Colbert, R. D., & Hebert, T. P. (2005). Understanding resilience in diverse, talented students in an urban high school. Roeper Review, 27, 110-120.
Sadler, P. M., & Tai, R. H. (2007). Advanced Placement exam scores as a predictor of performance in introductory college biology, chemistry and physics courses. Science Educator, 16(2), 1–19.
Scafidi, B., Clark C., and Swinton J. (2015). Who takes Advanced Placement (AP)? Eastern Economic Journal 41(3), pp. 346-369
Shaunessay-Dedrick, E., Suldo, S., Roth, R., Fefer, S. (2015). Students’ perceptions of factors that contribute to risk and success in accelerated high school courses. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education 98(2), pp. 109-137
Shaunessy, E., Suldo, S. M., Hardesty, R. B., & Shaffer, E. S. (2006). School functioning and psychological well being of International Baccalaureate and general education students: A preliminary examination. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17, 76-89.
Schunn, C., Godley, A., and DeMartino, S. (2016). The realiability and validity of peer review of writing in high school AP English classes. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 60(1), pp. 13-23
Snider, J. (April 7, 2010). AP and IB courses: Are they truly rigorous. The Hechinger Report
Suldo, S. M., Shaunessy, E., Thalji, A., Michalowski, J., & Shaffer, E. (2009). Sources of stress for students in high school college preparatory and general education programs: Group differences and associations with adjustment. Adolescence, 44, pp. 925-948
Suldo, S. M. & Shaunessy-Dedrick, E. (2013). The psychosocial functioning of high school students in academically rigorous programs. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 823-843
A Levels
Bates, R. (2011). Schooling internationally: Globalisation, internationalisation and the future for international schools. London: Routledge.
Bray, M. and Yamato, Y. (2003). Comparative education in a microcosm: Methodological insights from the international schools sector in Hong Kong. Comparative Education 49(1/2), pp. 51-73
Bunnell, T. (2008) The global growth of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme over the first 40 years: a critical assessment, Comparative Education, 44(4), 409-424
Bunnell, T. (2009) The International Baccalaureate in the USA and the emerging ‘culture war’, Discourse-studies in the cultural politics of education, 30(1), 61-72
Bunnell, T. (2010) The International Baccalaureate and a framework for class consciousness: the potential outcomes of a ‘class-for-itself, Discourse-Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 31(3), 351-362
Burns, S. 1994 ‘Changing A level Mathematics’. In Selinger, M. (Ed.) Teaching Mathematics, Routledge and OU
Conner, J. 0. (2008) From international schools to inner-city schools: the first principles of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program, Teachers College Record, 110(2), 322-351
Corlu, M. (2014). Which preparatory curriculum for the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme is best? The challenge for international school with regard to mathematics and science, International Review of Education 60(6), pp. 793-801
Ellwood, C. (1999). IGCSE and 1B Middle Years Programme: How compatible are they? International Schools Journal, 9(1), 35-44.
Evans, M. (2016). Reflections on the changes to the A levels. Geography. 101(3), pp. 156 163
Firestone W., Fitz, J., Broadfoot, P. (1999). Power, learning, and legitimation: Assessment implementation across levels in the United States and United Kingdom. American Education Research Journal 36(4), pp. 759-793
Green, F. and Vignoles, A. (2021). An empirical method for deriving grade equivalence for university entrance qualifications: an application to A levels and the International Baccaluareate. Oxford Review of Education 38(4), pp. 473-491
Guy, J. (2000). IBMYP and IGCSE: Are they really compatible? A response to Caroline Ellwood. Part I. International Schools Journal, 20(1), 10-17
Hayden M. and Thompson, J. (1997). Student perspectives on international education: A European dimension. Oxford Review of Education 4(1997), pp.459-478
Hayden M. and Thompson, J. (1998). International education: perceptions of teachers in international schools. International Review of Education 44(5/6), pp. 549-568
Hunt, D. 2005 ‘In Praise of GCSE Mathematics Coursework’, Mathematics in School, 34, 5
Kuwar, B. (2008) International Baccalaureate-better university preparation? Psychologist, 21(1), 75
Leversha, G. (2004). Data-handling at GCSE, Mathematics in School, 33, 5
Leversha, Gerry. (2006). GCSE coursework in mathematics: A sceptic’s view. Mathematics in School 35(1), pp. 18-19
Porkess, R. (2011). Modular A Levels in Mathematics. Mathematics in School 40(3), pp. 2-10
Stacey-Chapman, A. (2015). From a compartmentalized to a complicated past: developing transferable knowledge at A Level. Teaching History. (158), pp. 8-15
Part 2: National Differences
Overview
In many ways, the differences between the US and UK system were already noted above
when discussing the differences between AP and A Levels. I’ll avoid reiterating the content from
above.
In short, the US does not have a national curriculum, while the UK does. In the US system, students largely remain generalists until the end of their degree; in the UK, students begin to specialize from a quite young age. The UK system prioritizes exam results to a much greater degree than does the US.
Australia seems to have some traits of both the US and UK systems but perhaps more of a family resemblance with the US system. Australia has a national curriculum, but the manner of execution of the system varies by state. Structurally, both the US and Australian systems rely on a complex relationship of exchange between the federal and state levels. Also, as in the US, the Australian curriculum does not require the level of intense specialization of the UK system. Finally, exam results are not as consequential in Australia as they are in the UK, though Australia does have national exams (done for diagnostic purposes).
Unfortunately, all three systems are highly unequal and segregated. Interestingly, the Australian system is highly privatized (with private institutions accommodating upwards of one-third of all students). Anecdotally, some exchange students have suggested that they encountered more grade inflation in the US than Australia.
The educational system in Queensland appears to mirror that of the larger country.
US
- US schools are largely managed by state governments, which leads to a fair amount of curricular variation
- The curriculum is generally broad liberal arts and does not require specialization
- Still, a variety of factors can profoundly impact the curriculum and quality of education a student has access to, including
- social class,
- whether they attend a private or public school,
- whether they attend a “specialist” high school (e.g., focused on arts, science/tech, etc.),
- or is home schooled (i.e., not enrolled in formal education)
- Classes are generally tracked (i.e., students are grouped according to perceived skill, past performance, post-graduate plans to attend or not attend college)
- Honors-level classes are usually intended for students who plan to go to college
- AP is seen as more rigorous than honors classes and widely offered; IB is much less common and usually offered in higher income areas
- Exams are generally not required to graduate. Most students interested in going to college will take the SAT, though it is not mandatory to earn a high school diploma
UK
- The UK has a national curriculum; for example, students at elite private schools take the same exams as students who attend less prestigious public schools (https://www.etoncollege.com/inside-the-classroom/the-academic-curriculum/)
- The UK system is noticeably more oriented towards exams and specialization than the US system
- Starting at age 14, all students begin to prepare for the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) exams. These exams are offered in 50 subjects. Students generally take 9 exams: 5 in the core liberal arts subjects and 4 in their intended areas of specialization
- Students generally spend two years preparing for the GCSEs, and successful completion of the exams marks the conferral of the English high school diploma
- Following the GCSEs, students interested in attending college will then spend another two years preparing for the A level exams (discussed above)
- Admission to college requires completion of both exams; A Level performance determines admission to college
Australia
- Australian education is similar to the US in its diversity and tendency towards regional control
- Australia has a national curriculum (the Australian Curriculum) that is modified at the state level. Responsibility for shaping the national curriculum in Australia is done at the state level
- In A Levels (UK), you are assessed according to two big exams; in Australia you are largely assessed according to course work (though there are less consequential Australian national exams)
- Success in Australian schools appears to rely more on a student’s choice of subjects and level of achievement rather than the results of student curricular tracking (as in the US) or success on the national exams (as in the UK)
- The Australian Curriculum requires less specialization than in the UK and in that way seems roughly comparable to the US; students largely remain generalists through their education
US
Note: many entries in the AP section also describe the US system
Ewing, Eve. 2020. Ghosts in the schoolyard: Racism and school closings on Chicago’s South Side. University of Chicago Press.
Graham, Patricia. 2005. Schooling America: How the public schools meet the nation’s changing needs. Oxford University Press.
Loveless, Tom. 2021. Between the State and the schoolhouse. Harvard Education Press.
Mehta, Jal. 2015. The allure order: High hopes, dashed expectations, and the troubled quest to remake American schooling. Cambridge University Press
Ravitch, Diane. 2016. The death and life of the great American school system: How testing and choice are undermining education. Basic Books
Tyack, David. 1974. The one best system: a history of American urban education. Harvard University Press
UK
Note: virtually every entry under “A Levels” describes the UK system
Bamber, M. (2014). What motivates Chinese women to study in the UK and hiw di they perceive their experience? Higher Education. 68(1), pp. 47-68.
Reay, D., Crozier, G., and Clayton J. 2010. ‘Fitting in’ or ‘standing out’: working-class students in UK higher education. British Educational Research Journal. 36(1), pp. 107-124.
Warikoo, Natasha. 2011. Balancing Acts: Youth culture in the global city. University of California Press
Waters, J. and Brooks, R. (2010). Accidental achievers? International higher education, class reproduction and privilege in the experiences of UK students overseas. British Journal of Sociology of Education 31(2), pp. 217-228.
Willis, P. 1977. Learning to Labor. Columbia University Press
Australia
Almeida, S., Barnes, M., & Moore, D. (2018). Sustainability in Australian schools: A cross curriculum priority? Prospects, 1-16
Allen, B., & Readman, K. (2009). External examinations beyond national borders: Queensland (Australia) and the International Baccalaureate. In B. Vlaardinger broek & N. Taylor (Eds.), Secondary school external examination systems: Reliability, robustness and resilience (pp. 303-317). Amherst, NY: Cambria Press
Bagnall, N. (2005). The IB in Australia and New Zealand in the 21st century. Change: Transformations in Education, 8(1), 110-123
Bowden, M., and Doughney, J. (2010). Socio-economic. Status, cultural diversity and the aspirations of secondary students in the western suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. Higher Education 59(1), pp. 115-129
Burley, S. (2012). Pedagogy, politics and the profession: a practical perusal of past, present future developments in teaching history in Australian schools. Curriculum Architecture (147), pp. 53-59
Clarke, R., and Thomas,S. (2015). Productive Dissonance: Using digital narratives I the Australian literature classroom. Antipodes. 29(2), pp. 327-339
Coates, H., & Krause, K. (2005). Investigating ten years of equity policy in Australian higher education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27(1), 35-47
Connell, W. F. (1993). Reshaping Australian education 1960-1985. Melbourne, Australia: ACER
Croll, P. (2008). Occupational choice, socio-economic status and educational attainment: A study of the occupational choices and destinations of young people in the British household panel survey. Research Papers in Education, 23(3), 243-268
Dawkins, J. (1988) Strengthening Australia’s Schools (Canberra, Ministry for Employment, Education and Training).
Dawkins, J. & Holding, A. C. (1987) Skills for Australia (Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service).
Doherty, C. (2009). The appeal of the International Baccalaureate in Australia’s educational market: A curriculum of choice for mobile futures. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 30(2), 73-89.
Doherty C., and Shield, P. (2012). Teachers’ work in curricular markets: Conditions of design and relations between the International Baccalaureate Diploma and the local curriculum. Curriculum Inquiry. 42(3), pp. 414-441
Falloon, G., Stevenson, M., Beswick, K., Fraser, S., and Geiger V. (2021). Building STEM in schools: An Australian Cross-case analysis. Educational Technology and Society 24(4), pp. 110-122
Ghazarian, Z., and Laughland-Body, J. (2019). Young people, political knowledge, and the future of Australian democracy. Australian Quarterly 90(1), pp. 38-43
McMahon, G. (2009). Critical Thinking and IC~T integration in a western Australian secondary school. Journal of Educational Technology and Society 12(9), pp. 269-281
Melvin, S., Landsberg, E., and Lynn Kagan, S. (2020). International curriculum frameworks. Young Children 75(1), pp, 10-21
McMillan. J., & Western, J. (2000). Measurement of the socio-economic status of Australian higher education students Higher Education, 39, 223-248
Morley, S. (2020). Do young people in Australian educational systems receive adequate support to feel empower in engaging with sustainable development goals? Consilience 22(6), pp. 86-92
Newhouse, C. (2017). STEM the boredom: Engage students in the Australian Curriculum using ICT with Problem-Based Learning and Assessment. Journal of Science Education and Technology. 26(1), pp. 44-57
Nyland, C., Forbes-Mewett, H., and Hartel, C. (2013). Governing the international student experience: lessons from the Australian international education model. Academy of Management and Education 12(4), pp. 656-673
Salter, P., & Maxwell, J. (2016). The inherent vulnerability of the Australian Curriculum’s cross-curriculum priorities. Critical Studies in Education, 57 (3), 296-312
Yates, L. and Collins, C. (2010). The absence of knowledge in Australian curriculum reforms. European Journal of Education. 45(1), pp., 89-102
Yates, L., Collins, C., & O’Connor, K. (Eds.). (2011). Australia’s curriculum dilemmas: State cultures and the big issues. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press